PHIL 226, Week 1

Introduction to course

Biomedical ethics considers issues of right and wrong that arise in medical research and practice.

Examples: vaccinations, euthanasia, abortion, cloning, public health care, medical research.

In the news, 2012:

See the syllabus for topics and assignments.

Each class will have a discussion period and one-minute essay.

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy:  The search for answers to fundamental questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, morality, and the meaning of life.

Epistemology:  The philosophical study of the nature of knowledge.

Metaphysics:   The philosophical study of the fundamental nature of what exists.

Ethics:  The philosophical study of the basis of right and wrong.

Positions about ethics (meta-ethics)

1. Objectivism: there really is right and wrong.

Problems: People disagree about particular cases of right and wrong, and there are conflicting ethical theories about what constitutes right and wrong.

2. Relativism: right and wrong depend on your point of view, so what's right for one person might be wrong for another person.

Problems: There are some issues, e.g. torturing babies, that virtually everyone agrees about, and we need to be able to make ethical judgments for social reasons.

3. Non-cognitivism: Ethical statements are merely expressions of emotional attitudes of approval or disapproval.

Problems: Although ethical judgments are undoubtedly emotional, they seem to be more than just approval or disapproval.

Ethical Decision Procedure

1. Identify the issue.

2. Identify the options.

3. Use Ethical Reasoning Patterns to evaluate the options.

4. Reach a conclusion on the issue.

Ethical reasoning patterns

An ethical reasoning pattern (ERP) is a standard way of justifying a conclusion about right and wrong.

Religious ERP #1:

Issue: Is a particular action right or wrong?

Analysis: According to my religious beliefs, the action is right (wrong).

Conclusion: The action is right (wrong).

Problems with religious ERP:

Different religions advocate different principles and beliefs.

How do you know that your religion is the true or morally correct one?

Consequences ERP #2:

Issue: Is a particular action right or wrong?

Analysis: Overall, the action has good consequences, so it is right.

Or, overall, the action has bad consequences, so it is wrong.

Conclusion: the action is right (wrong).

Problems with the consequences ERP

1. How should the consequences be evaluated?

(a) Pleasure/pain (b) Happiness (c) Flourishing (d) Ideals

2. An action can have overall good consequences, but still seem wrong, because it violates rights.

Rights/duties ERP #3:

Issue: Is a particular action right or wrong?

Analysis: An action is right if you have a duty to do it and it does not violate anyone's rights.

An action is wrong if you have a duty not to do it or if it violates someone's rights.

Conclusion: The action is right (wrong).

Problems with the rights/duties ERP

1. What rights and duties do people have? How do we know?

2. What happens when rights and duties conflict?

Principles ERP #4

Issues: Is a particular action right or wrong.

Analysis: An action is right if it follows from a good general principle, and does not violate any principles.

An action is wrong if it violates an ethical principle.

Conclusion: The action is right (wrong).

Problems with the principles ERP

1. What are the appropriate principles?

(a) Autonomy = self-determination

(b) Equality = fairness, justice

(c) Beneficence: maximize the good

(d) Non-malfeasance: minimize harm

2. What to do when principles conflict?

What to do when ERP's conflict?

Try to put them into an overall coherent picture.

See P. Thagard, "Ethical Coherence."

Needs-based consequentialism ERP #5 (Thagard 2010)

Issues: Is a particular action right or wrong?

Analysis: An action is right if overall it helps to satisfy human needs.

An action is wrong if it blocks the satisfaction of human needs.

Conclusion: The action is right (wrong).

Problems with the needs-based consequentialism ERP

1. What are human needs?

2. Can satisfaction of human needs justify violation of human rights?

Other approaches to ethics

1. Virtue ethics: act in accord with a virtuous character, that promotes the proper functioning of human beings.

2. Feminist ethics: take into account issues about care, power, and relationships, particularly as they concern the experiences of women.

3. Value maps: use cognitive-affective maps to diagram values.

Discussion question

Are ethical judgments objective or relative to persons and situations?

Review Questions for Week 1

  1. How are facts different from values?
  2. What is the difference between ethical relativism and objectivism?
  3. What is the difference between teleological (consequentialist) and deontological (rights/duties) approaches to ethical theory?
  4. What ethical principles are relevant to making medical decisions?
  5. What are the impediments to making medical ethical decisions solely on the basis of religion?

Phil 226

Computational Epistemology Laboratory.

Paul Thagard

This page updated Sept. 10, 2012